Introduction to personality

Introduction to personality The manner in which a person acts and interacts is a reflection of his personality. Personality is influenced by hereditary, cultural and social factors. Regardless of how its defined, however, psychologists generally accept certain principles: Personality is an organized whole; otherwise, the individual would have no meaning. Personality appears to be organized into patterns that are to some degree observable and measurable. Although personality has a biological basis, its specific development is also a product of social and cultural environments. Personality has superficial aspects such as attitudes toward being a team leader and a deeper core such as sentiments about authority or the Protestant work ethic. Personality involves both common and unique characteristics. Every person is different from every other person in some respects, while being similar to other persons in other respects. (Sources from James L Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, Jams H. Donnelly, JR and Robert Konopaske, (2003). Organisational Behavior, Structure, Process, New Yoke: The McGraw-Hill Companies). Part of the pleasure of getting to know someone is the fascination of learning who they are and how they think. Each person has a unique pattern of thinking, behaving, and expressing their feelings. In short, everyone has a unique personality. Without doubt, personality touches our daily lives. Falling in love, choosing friends, getting along with co-workers, voting for a president, or coping with your zaniest relatives all raise questions about personality. What is Personality? Personality could be further explained by the following theories by various writers: Personality can be defines as an integrated part of an individual it is something a person does or has. People bring their personalities to situations and take them away with them when they leave (Davey, 2004). Personality defines as a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine commonalities and differences in peoples behavior (James, 1994). Personality defines as a persons unique pattern of thinking, emotions, and behavior (Funder, 2001). Personality defines as the structures inside a person that explain why he or she creates a particular impression on others (MacKinnon, 1969). Personality refers to the consistency in who you are, have been, and will become. It also refers to the special blend of talents, value, hopes, loves, hates, and habits that makes each of us a unique person (Coon, 2006). Personality defines as an individuals personality is a relatively stable set of characteristics, tendencies and temperaments that have been significantly formed by inheritance and by social, cultural and environmental factors. This set of variables determines the commonalities and differences and differences in the behavior of the individual (Gibson, 2003). Personality defines as the distinctive impression a person makes on others (Goldberg, 1993). Personality defines as a dynamic organisation, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create a persons characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings (Carver and Scheier, 2000) (Allport, 1961). Personality defines as the combinations of the psychological traits that characterize that person (Robbins and DeCenzo, 2005). Personality defines as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations (Ryckman, 2004). Determinants of Personality Personality is the outcome of a continuous personal quality development process. The role of personality becomes clear in a particular situation. Personality is recognised in a situation. It is the results of personal quality interaction in a particular condition. The major determinants of personality of an individual are given below: Biological factors Heredity: Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physic stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or substantially influenced by who your parents were; that is, by their biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup. The contribution of heredity to personality development is vividly clear for developing external appearance, behavior, social stimuli, self inner awareness, organizing traits, etc. Environment: Exerts pressure on personality formation. Culture, religious practices, family groups, friends, social groups and experience play a part in shaping personality. Culture establishes norms, attitudes, and values that are passed over generations. Situation: Personality changes in different situations. Different situations demand different types of behavior. Situations restrict or cause us elicit certain types of behaviors. We behave differently when attending funeral. We display different behavior when attending employment interview. Personality Types Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people. Personality types are distinguished from personality traits, which come in different levels or degrees. According to type theories, for instance, there are two fundamentals types of people, introverts and extraverts. According to traits theories, introversion and extraversion are part of a continuous dimension. Extraverts energy is directed primarily outward, towards people and things outside of themselves. Introverts energy is primarily directed inward, towards their own thoughts, perceptions, and reactions. Therefore, extraverts tend to be more naturally active, expressive, social, and interested in many things, whereas introverts tend to be more reserved, private, cautions, and interested in fewer interactions, but with greater depth and focus. Below Figure 1 is the characteristic of Extraverts and Introverts (Tieger Barron, 2003). Even though types tend to oversimplify personality, they do have value. Most often, types are a shorthand way of labeling who have several traits in common. One well known example of personality types is Type A theory. According to this theory, impatient, hostile people are classified as Type A, whereas calm, laid back individuals are designated as Type B. Type A In Type A personality, people belonging to such category are hard driving, ambitious, highly competitive, achievement oriented, and striving. Type A people believe that with enough effort they can overcome any obstacle, and they push themselves accordingly (Niaura, 2002). Types As seem to chafe at the normal pace of events. They hurry from one activity to another, racing the clock in self-imposed urgency. As they do, they feel a constant sense of frustration and anger. Feelings of anger and hostility, in particular, are strongly related to increased risk of heart attack (Niaura, 2002). Characteristics of Type A people are summarized in the short self-identification test presented in Figure 2 below. Characteristics of the Type A Person Have a habit of explosively accentuating various key words in ordinary speech even when there is no need for such accentuation. Finish other peoples sentences for them. Always move, walk and eat rapidly. Quickly skim reading material and prefer summaries or condensations of books. Become easily angered by slow-moving lines or traffic. Feel an impatience with the rate at which most events take place. Tend to be unaware of the details or beauty of your surroundings. Frequently strive to think of or do two or more things simultaneously. Almost always feel vaguely guilty when you relax, vacation, or do absolutely nothing for several days. Tend to evaluate your worth in quantitative terms (number of As earned, amount of income, number of games won, and so forth). Have nervous gestures or muscle twitches, such as grinding your teeth, clenching your fists, or drumming your fingers. Attempt to schedule more and more activities into less time and in so doing make fewer allowances for unforeseen problems. Frequently think about other things while talking to someone. Repeatedly take on more responsibilities than you can comfortably handle. (Shortened and adapted from Meyer Friedman and Ray H. Rosenman, Type A Behavior and Your Heart, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc, 1983). As our society places a premium on achievement, competition, and mastery, it is not surprising that many people develop Type A personalities. The best way to avoid the self-made stress this causes is to adopt behavior that is the opposite of that listed in Figure 2 above. It is entirely possible to succeed in life without sacrificing your health or happiness in the process. Type B The converse, the Type B individual, mainly is free of the Type A behavior pattern characteristics and generally feels no pressing conflict with either time or persons. The Type B may have considerable drive, want to accomplish things and work hard, but the Type B has a confident style that allows him or her to work at a steady pace and not to race against the clock. The Type A has been likened to a racehorse; the Type B, to a turtle. Type B individual appear more relaxed and easy-going. They accept situations and work within them rather fight them competitively. Type B individual are especially relaxed regarding time pressure, so they are less prone to have problems associated with stress. Still, Type B individuals can be highly productive workers who meet schedule expectations; they simply obtain results in a different manner. Characteristics of the Type B Person Patient Relaxes Easy-going, mellow May avoid confrontation Not quick to anger (Shortened and adapted from Meyer Friedman and Ray H. Rosenman, Type A Behavior and Your Heart, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc, 1983). Personality Traits Five specific personality traits have proven most powerful in explaining individual behavior in organizations. These are locus of control, machiavellianism, self-esteem, self-monitoring and risk propensity. Locus of Control Some people believe that they control their own fate. Others see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their lives us due to luck or chance. The Locus of Control in the first case is internal. In the second case, it is external; these people believe that their lives are controlled by outside forces. A manager might also expect to find that externals blame a poor performance evaluation on their bosss prejudice, their employees, or other events outside their control, whereas internal explain the same evaluation in terms of their own actions. Machiavellianism The second personality trait is called Machiavellianism. An individual who is high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, believes that ends can justify means, and is found to have beliefs that are less ethical. Jobs that require bargaining skills (labour negotiator) or that have substantial rewards for winning (a commissioned salesperson), high Machiavellianism are productive. In job in which ends do not justify the means or that lack absolute standards of the performance, it is difficult to predict the performance of high Machiavellianism. Self-Esteem People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike themselves. This trait is called Self-Esteem. The research on Self-Esteem offers some interesting insights into organizational behavior. For instance, Self-Esteem is directly related to expectations for success. High Self-Esteem believed that they possess the ability to succeed at work. Individuals with high Self-Esteem will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs than are people with low Self-Esteem. Low Self-Esteem is dependent on positive evaluations from others. As a result, they are more likely to seek approval from others and more prone to conform to the beliefs and behaviors of those they respect than are high Self-Esteems. Self-Monitoring The third personality trait is called Self-Monitoring. It refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors (Snyder, 1987). Individuals high in Self-Monitoring can show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external, situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations. Risk Propensity The final personality trait is called Risk Propensity. A preference to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes individuals to make a decision and how much information they require before making their choice. For instance, 79 managers worked on a simulated human resources management exercise that required them to make hiring decisions (Taylor, 2000). High risk-taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in making their choices than did the low risk-taking managers. Interestingly, the decisions accuracy was the same for both groups. The Big 5 Models The Big Five represents taxonomy (classification system) of traits that some personality psychologists suggest capture the essence of individual differences in personality. These traits were arrived at through factor analysis studies. The five factors are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. The following are some of the important characteristics of the five factors. The factors are dimensions, not types, so people vary continuously on them, with most people falling in between the extremes (Soldz Vaillant, 1999). The factors are stable over a 45-year period beginning in young adulthood (Soldz Vaillant, 1999). The factors and their specific facets are heritable (McCrae, 1998). The factors probably had adaptive value in a prehistoric environment (Buss, 1996). The factors are considered universal, having been recovered in languages as diverse as German and Chinese (McCrae Costa, 1997). Knowing ones placement on the factors is useful for insight and improvement through therapy (McCrae Costa, 1992). The Big Five factors and their constituent traits: Openness Appreciation for art, Emotion, Adventure, Unusual ideas, Imagination, Curiosity and Variety of experience Conscientiousness A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior. Extraversion Energy, Positive emotions, Surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. Agreeableness A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. Neuroticism A tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional instability. (Source adapted from J. S. Wiggins (Ed.). The five-factor mode of personality: Theoretical perspectives. New York: Guilford). Openness Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. The trait distinguishes imaginative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are more likely to hold unconventional beliefs (Buss D. M., 1996). People with low scores on openness tend to have more conventional, traditional interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavours as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty. They are conservative and resistant to change (Buss D. M., 1996). Conscientiousness Conscientiousness is a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement. The trait shows a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behaviour. It influences the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses (Buss D. M., 1996). The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics (Buss D. M., 1996). Extraversion Extraversion, also called extroversion, is characterized by positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek out stimulation and the company of others. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say Yes! or Lets go! to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves (Buss D. M., 1996). Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression. Introverts simply need less stimulation than extraverts and more time alone (Buss D. M., 1996). Agreeableness Agreeableness is a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. The trait reflects individual differences in concern with for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy (Burger, 2008). Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative (Burger, 2008). Neuroticism Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability. Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotics ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress (Burger, 2008). Individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings. Frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion domain (Burger, 2008). Application The test that I had just taken is based on the Five Factor Model of personality. There is a broad consensus amongst personality theorists that this model, which describes five major domains or traits, is the best current description of the structure of personality. The five major dimensions, and my scores on them, are described below. Factor I: Extraversion (AKA Surgency) This trait reflects preference for, and behavior in, social situations. People high in extraversion are energetic and seek out the company of others. Low scorers (introverts) tend to be more quiet and reserved. Compared to other people who have taken this test, my score on this dimension (25) is about average. Factor II: Agreeableness (AKA Friendliness) This trait reflects how we tend to interact with others. People high in agreeableness tend to be trusting, friendly and cooperative. Low scorers tend to be more aggressive and less cooperative. Compared to other people who have taken this test, my score on this dimension (25) is about average. Factor III: Conscientiousness (AKA Will or Dependability) This trait reflects how organized and persistent we are in pursuing our goals. High scorers are methodical, well organized and dutiful. Low scorers are less careful, less focused and more likely to be distracted from tasks. Compared to other people who have taken this test, my score on this dimension (29) is relatively low. Factor IV: Neuroticism (AKA Emotional Stability) This trait reflects the tendency to experience negative thoughts and feelings. High scorers are prone to insecurity and emotional distress. Low scorers tend to be more relaxed, less emotional and less prone to distress. Compared to other people who have taken this test, my score on this dimension (25) is about average. Factor V: Openness (AKA Culture or Intellect) This trait reflects open-mindedness and interest in culture. High scorers tend to be imaginative, creative, and to seek out cultural and educational experiences. Low scorers are more down-to-earth, less interested in art and more practical in nature. Compared to other people who have taken this test, my score on this dimension (21) is relatively low. (Sources adapted from Paul D. Tieger Barbara Barron (2000-2003) retrieved on 21 December 2009, from www.personalitytype.com). Conclusion In conclusion, personality types group people into categories on the basic of shared traits and traits are lasting personal qualities that are inferred from behaviour. People who have traits of the hardy personality seem to be resistant to stress, even if they also have Type A traits. People with Type A personalities are competitive, striving, hostile, impatient, and prone to having heart attacks. Personality variables, such as Locus of Control, Machiavellianism, are associated with behavior and performance. Although difficult to measure, these variables appear to be important personality facets in explaining and predicting individual behavior. Reference Funder D C. (2001). Personality. Annual Review Psychology Coon, D. (2006). Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, (10th eth). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. James L. Gibson (1994). Organisational Behavior, Structure, Process. USA, Von Hoffmann Press Inc. Niaura, R. (1994). Hostility, The Metabolic Syndrome, and Incident Coronary Heart Disease. Health Psychology. Meyer Friedman and Ray H. Rosenman (1983). Type A Behavior and Your Heart, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Soldz, S., Vaillant, G. E. (1999). The Big Five personality traits and the life course: A 45-year longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality. McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., Jr. (1996). Toward a new generation of personality theories: Theoretical contexts for the five-factor model. In J. S. Wiggins (Ed.). The five-factor model of personality: Theoretical perspectives. New York: Guilford. McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., Jr. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist. Buss, D. M. (1996). Social adaptation and five major factors of personality. In J. S. Wiggins (Ed.). The five-factor model of personality: Theoretical perspectives. New York: Guilford. James L Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, Jams H. Donnelly, JR and Robert Konopaske, (2003) Organisational Behavior, Structure, Process, The McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc New York. Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic personality traits. American psychologist. Hall, W. B. MacKinnon, D.W (1969) Personality correlates of creativity among architects. Journal of Applied Psychology. Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F. (2000). Perspectives on personality (4th eth.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Paul D. Tieger Barbara Barron (2000-2003), Personality Type.com. LLC. Stephen P. Robbins and David A. DeCenzo (2005). Fundamentals of Management. Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. Ryckman, R. (2004). Theories of Personality. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. Jerry M. Burger (2008). Personality (Seventh Edition). Website Reference: www.personalitytype.com www.wikipedia.com

Discobolus by Myron (Ancient Greek Art)

In any history, and above all in the history of art, there are two main aspects, from which the subject may be considered. The subject may be either studied from the point of view of general tendencies, the development of types and ideas, their national character, and the circumstances that surrounded and fostered their growth; or attention may be given to the achievements of individuals, their personality, and the contributions that they respectively made to the general progress.It is true that in any comprehensive study the two must be blended, must supplement and confirm each other. Whichever principle is followed to guide the selection and arrangement of the facts, the study cannot follow it to the entire exclusion of the other. Yet the artist is no less dependent upon external circumstances for the occasion and the material of his works.Had not the predecessors worked through generations of experiment and observation to improve the familiar types, to attain mastery over the stub born substance of marble and bronze, and to acquire and perfect a skilled technique in the treatment of the nude and of drapery, no sculptor of the fifth century could have conceived or executed the bold yet symmetrical contortions of the Discobolus. Had Myron been born a century earlier, he could no more have produced these works than if he had lived at the present day.Before the study approaches the work of this individual master, it may be advisable to take a more general survey of the character of Greek sculpture, as contrasted with earlier and later styles. No art, and especially that of sculpture, can make true progress unless it is constantly kept in touch with nature by observation. Here again the social surroundings of the Greek artist gave him an immense advantage over all others. The daily exercises in the palaestra or gymnasium and the frequently recurring athletic festivals gave him constant opportunities for observing the human form both in rest and in action.This perf ection of condition and of all-round muscular development with the help of a well-trained memory is one of the chief attainments of Myron. For the observation of drapery, too, he had constant opportunities in the figures that surrounded him in daily life. There he could see a variety and grace of texture and of folds such as no draping of a model in unfamiliar garments and materials could ever have suggested. It is true that the same opportunities for varied observation did not exist in the case of the nude female figure.It is perhaps for this very reason that Greek statues of this type, however beautiful in form, rarely if ever impress us with the same breadth and nobility of conception as the corresponding male figures, whether of gods or men. The feeling of the Greeks themselves about the matter is well illustrated by the story of Zeuxis at Croton , how the people of that town, when they commissioned him to paint a picture of Helen, and wished to give him every opportunity for ex celling himself in such a subject, allowed him to see a selection of the most beautiful of their maidens just as freely as he could see their brothers exercising in the palaestra.This is evidently the meaning of the story, though it is misinterpreted by some later authorities in accordance with the eclectic spirit of their own age. Myron was a Greek sculptor. He is supposed to have been a pupil of Ageladas of Argos, but he worked largely in Athens. Sculpting in bronze, he was noted for his animals (of which no examples have survived) and for his athletes in action. His works are known through descriptions by ancient writers, such as Pliny and Pausanias, and two of them by copies, the Discobolus (Gr. discus thrower), the best copy of which is the Lancelotti Discobolus in Rome (Terme Museum), and Athena and Marsyas, of which there are also Roman copies . We know but little about Myron’s life. He was a native of Eleutherae, a town on the frontier of Attica and Boeotia. To judge from the list of his works and the places where they were set up, he must have enjoyed a reputation throughout Hellenic lands. The statues of athletic victors from his hand could be seen at Olympia and at Delphi. However, several of his most famous works were in Athens, and it is probable that his artistic career was mainly associated with that city.He is recorded, however, to have been a pupil of the Argive sculptor Ageladas, who was for a long time the acknowledged leader of the Peloponnesian School of athletic sculpture; and it is said that his fellow-pupils were Phidias and Polyclitus. The dates of Myron’s artistic career can be fixed with certainty by the Olympiads of the victors whose statues he made; Lycinus won in 448 B. C. , and Timanthes in 456; Ladas probably in 476; but so famous an athlete may have had a statue set up in his honor some years after the event.The traditional date given by Pliny, which makes Myron a contemporary of Polyclitus, is evidently wrong. Hi s son Lycius was employed on an important public commission, the statues set up by the knights of Athens at the entrance to the Acropolis, about 446 B. C. We must, therefore, assign the artistic activity of Myron himself to the first half of the fifth century. His early manhood must have coincided with the period of the Persian wars. Of the great men of this period, our knowledge, after all, is most unsatisfactory.Only one of the transitional sculptors who are mentioned by ancient writers, Myron, has a definite personality. He was clearly an artist of decidedly individual tendencies, who can hardly be called typical of any school. Though all of Myron’s works have perished, we have copies of at least two of them, from which we can gain a fairly clear idea of this ancient master. This is the first time that we have had to deal with copies, and it may be worthwhile, therefore, to digress for a moment and consider the nature of the copies on which much of our knowledge of ancient sculpture depends.In the later days of antiquity, especially after the Roman conquest of Greece, there was evidently an enormous demand for reproductions of the famous works of Greek sculpture, and numerous artists devoted themselves to supplying this demand. Some seem to reproduce their originals with considerable exactness; others are obviously far inferior to them. Often one copy was made from another, and sometimes the copyists did not hesitate to alter the originals in details, so that many of their productions are reflections rather than copies, in any exact sense.One very common alteration was the addition of a support in the form of a tree-stump or some other object. This was almost always employed when the copyist, as frequently happened, was working out a marble copy of a bronze original. Moreover, mutilated ancient statues, when they were dug out of the ground, were commonly handed over to a marble-worker for â€Å"restoration†, that is, for the addition of legs o r heads or noses, whatever, in fact, was necessary to make the statue complete.Thus, we have constantly to keep in mind that in dealing with copies, the problem often is to determine, from several widely divergent and differently restored copies, the general appearance and the details of an ancient statue. This method of procedure is excellently illustrated by the most famous of Myron’s works, the Discobolus, or Discus-thrower. The copies of this, which have been found, vary greatly in details. All are marred by the supporting tree-stump, though this was differently treated by different copyists.Only one has a head, which has never been broken off and which shows the original position, as it is described by Lucian. One fragmentary copy was completely misunderstood by the sculptor to whom it was handed over and restored as a fleeing Niobid! The Discobolus is justly famous for its splendid suggestion of vigorous manhood, its bold pose, and its perfect balance. If it were not fo r the formal locks of hair, the rather expressionless face, and some ancient evidence, which fixes the career of Myron in the first half of the fifth century, the statue might well be regarded as a work of the great age of Greek sculpture.As it is, we must probably assign the original to the years just before 450, and regard the unusual freedom with which it is conceived as proof of the originality of Myron rather than as evidence of a general adoption of such active poses by the men of the transitional time. Such an inference is borne out by some other works of the master, such as his group of Athena and Marsyas, and especially his Ladas, a statue of a runner poised on tiptoe just as he reached the goal, a work of which only literary accounts are preserved.Moreover, down to the time of Alexander the Great such violent action as is suggested by these works was rarely represented by the Greek sculptors. These particular innovations, therefore, were little imitated by Myron’s i mmediate successors, but there can be little doubt that much of the progress made during the transitional period was due to his initiative. In compensation for this cooling of ancient enthusiasm, we may perhaps extenuate the one weakness noted by the ancients. He was accounted a master of anatomy and action, but weak in the rendering of the face.Conceding that the faces are not very expressive, it may be doubted whether this is altogether a weakness. It is questionable whether the athletes whom he represents were very expressive of countenance, and it is altogether certain that their faces were not the subject of chief attention. In still further subordinating facial expression, Myron is but following the great law of concentration, which is recognized in all great art. Probably he could not in any case have been a master of psychic analysis, but it is more than doubtful if his themes would have gained by such mastery.Other masters of the same theme long betray the same tendency. My ron was the earliest of the great masters of Greek sculpture. That is to say, he was the earliest sculptor whose works appeared, even to critics who were familiar with the whole range of later art, to be admirable alike for the boldness and originality of their design and the skill of their execution, and who was spoken of in the same breath with Polyclitus and Lysippus, with Phidias and Praxiteles. Quintilian himself declares that to find fault with the Discobolus argues a lack of appreciation of art.The Dorian sculptor Myron specialized in athletes. A marble copy found in Rome demonstrates the way a sculptor may at the same time hold to conventions and reach out toward new forms. The Discus Thrower is really designed to be seen only from the front. Anyone who moves around to the side of this piece can see that it is all on a flat plane. The general line of the figure, which starts with the left foot and runs up through the arms, ending in the discus, suggests somewhat the tension of an opened spring, which will snap shut and propel the wheel into space.The muscles appear about as natural as those in the contemporary Olympian pediment sculpture, and yet this is a single figure. Up to that time, single figures had always some religious significance and therefore remained columnar or geometric. This one is frankly realistic and may have been made pretty much for its own sake. It was no new departure in art for Myron to represent an athlete practicing the exercise in which he excelled. His great attainment, as exemplified by the Discobolus, was the choice of a subject and a moment that was suitable to representation in sculpture.He appears to have been the first to realize the principle, never afterwards violated in Greek sculpture of the best period, that a statue or a sculptural group must be complete in itself, must possess a certain unity and concentration, so as to attract and contain the interest of the spectator within the work itself, and not to direct i t to other extraneous objects, nor even to allow it to wander away. In the Discobolus, the self-contained completeness in the action finds its expression and counterpart in the lines of the composition itself.It may be, as Quintilian says, labored and contorted, but the result is not, as might have been expected, restless in effect or tiring to the eye, because every part is in harmony with the whole, and the eye is carried on by an easy and pleasing succession of outlines round the whole contour of the figure . Beside this excellence of artistic composition, the clever choice of the right moment for representation and of an athletic exercise in which such a moment occurs must also be allowed their merit.The disc or quoit was not aimed at any mark, but merely hurled as far as possible in a given direction, as in the modern competitions of putting the weight or throwing the hammer. Therefore, there was no need for the eye of the competitor to be turned towards a distant goal, but the head could follow the motion of the arm that swung the quoit, the position of the feet sufficing to define the direction of the throw.A false restoration, which makes the thrower turn his head toward this direction, not only produces a painful and even impossible attitude, but also destroys the harmony of the composition, by breaking in upon the system of concentric curves in which every member of the body follows the swing of the extended arm. Athleticism, however, gave one important thing to the Greeks. It was from the models in the palaestra and the stadium that the sculptors of Greece drew their inspiration.It was of course an immense benefit to that art to be able to see the stripped body at exercise in the sunlight, and that, coupled with the natural Greek sense of form, is the secret of the unchallenged supremacy of Greek sculpture. Perfect anatomy of the body was achieved even before the face could be properly rendered. The nude male figure was the favorite theme of fifth-c entury art, and extraordinary perfection was reached by Myron. Myron’s Discobolus is, of course, one of the best known of ancient statues. There are few statues of the fifth century, which thus select an instant out of a series of movements.In the Discobolus, the clear lines of demarcation are not inconsistent with a correct and skilful modeling of the surface. The effect is perhaps somewhat dry, and suggests the appearance of a man in hard training, and even the tension of muscles that would not be exerted at the moment of action is portrayed. However, what convention is left is so thoroughly harmonized with the results of fresh observation as to give the impression of a living body, and to justify the criticism applied to Myron by ancient critics, that he â€Å"almost captured the souls of men and animals in his bronzes† .

The International Relations Topics for Essay Cover Up

The International Relations Topics for Essay Cover Up Things You Should Know About International Relations Topics for Essay There is frequently a world language requirement too. International relations theories can help us understand how the global systems work, along with how nations engage with one another and see the world. The term `globalization' became popular over the last couple of decades. You also ought to learn a minumum of one world language. The Pain of International Relations Topics for Essay Bear in mind, each worldview will have assumptions about the actors that are important, the problems that play the best role, and the degree of analysis that's appropriate. IR theory isn't easy to define. Theories of international relations are basically a set of ideas aimed toward explaining the way the global system works. The Number One Question You Must Ask for International Relations Topics for Essay International relations is the study of the way the different actor s of the global community interact with each other on a daily basis. Many very senior men and women in international affairs are lawyers, but law school is most likely not the most effective approach to begin a career in international affairs. In the end, since international law was one of my favourite papers in 2nd calendar year, I opted to compose a dissertation on an element of worldwide law in my third calendar year. It's clear when examined that there's an attempt by the majority of people to maximise their power. International Relations Topics for Essay Options Currently there are naturally countless books to pick from, but if you are searching for something to get you current on a number of the biggest events of the past calendar year, then we have some terrific suggestions that have featured in our book reviews section. If you can receive the Master's without costing too much, then do it, but otherwise it may be well worth it to concentrate on getting more job experien ce and building your portfolio. You should have your reasons, and our principal concern is that you wind up getting a great grade. Consider, for a minute, a very simple math issue. It can also help increase your profile with publishing companies whenever the time comes for you to get started pitching your own book ideas. Though this task requires just a few things to finish, most students find it extremely tough to compose an essay with quality. If you are searching for assistance with your essay then we provide a comprehensive writing service given by fully qualified academics in your area of study. So far as the students are involved, writing a research paper is among the toughest and frustrating endeavor in their opinion. You continually explore new thoughts and information and keep current on political subjects and produce new methods to consider and address troubles. To assist you get started writing, we've put together a reading list containing the significant research reports and appropriate government documents on the politics of AI. 1 reason I find this essay to be quite interesting is it's very well written. Any essay that's written after indulging in an exhaustive research on the chosen topic will surely help the reader with a deep insight into this issue, and hence would inadvertently have a considerable effect on the reader. You may also secure many discounts on our site which will help you to save some more money for future orders or anything you want to spend them on. There is a great deal of confusion about international law for a career. It would be difficult to speak about 2018 without mentioning Russia. Private global law is well-known because people and organizations will pay money to acquire answers to these types of questions. The True Meaning of International Relations Topics for Essay Critics mention how countries with very little power in the worldwide community frequently don't have the chance to export their societal values, while powerful nations like the United States of America dominate the discussion. It is necessary for experts in international relations to comprehend the way by which different countries are governed. Finally, the region of international relations studied is dependent upon the goals or aims of the organization. Nor does this have any true enforcement agency, like a global police force. In the recent times, many nations share cultural, economic, military and strategic relationship that's of wonderful importance. Global cooperation is of extreme value to cope with global issues like pollution, global warming, and other climate problems. It's possible to chat about and highlight many such benefits of global cooperation. You are able to also write about the disadvantages of global trade, which impact the global relations to an extent. Like most areas of scholarship, there are distinct schools of thought in the area of international relations. The Ph.D. degree is essentially a research degree. As with other liberal arts degrees, a degree within this discipline will not offer you entry into a particular occupation. On-line learning makes it feasible to make a degree when traveling. If students would like to be an attorney, go to law school. Law school is the ideal alternative for everyone who would like to practice private global law, but students must remember they must be a lawyer initially and a worldwide lawyer second. Additionally, different schools offer you different geographic or policy specializations.

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